Talk:Pregnancy

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Male pregnancy[edit]

Wikipedia distinguishes male from female pregnancy, with seemingly no page specifically for female pregnancy, or even a redirect. Would it be advisable to create separate pages for quotes specifying male and female pregnancy, and or, to remove quotes that specify they are about female pregnancy from this page, as there is one more specific? If creating gendered versions of the pregnancy page is advisable, would it than reason that we should sex segregate quotes for other pages? I've noticed a trend recently to transfer quotes to more specific pages and was wondering how far the community really wants to take that. CensoredScribe (talk) 20:36, 11 July 2019 (UTC)[reply]

I, for one, see no need to have separate pages. ~ UDScott (talk) 22:38, 11 July 2019 (UTC)[reply]

Notability[edit]

About this, I can't find any proof of notabilty of these people, that is that "received significant coverage in multiple published secondary sources that are reliable, intellectually independent of each other, and independent of the subject." WP:BASIC Robin Loup (talk) 08:00, 23 July 2023 (UTC)[reply]

@Robin Loup, I guess when you say "notabilty of these people" you are referring to David Bell, M.D.? If so, I would like to offer my general views on the topic of notability of individuals who make quotes "quotable":
  • It appears that a person becomes automatically notable here when they have an ENWP page dedicated to them. However if the person is a notable person in a non-English speaking country, they are not considered to be notable for the purposes making a quote by them quotable.
  • Someone who is notable on ENWP, automatically can become quatable here even if their quote is silly. Why is a quote by, say, Daniel Barenboim (an orchestra conductor) about the war in Ukraine quotable, but not one from say, x, who is a mayor of a town on the border between Russia and the Ukraine?
  • Why is it that a quote that talks about the egregious new laws being passed in some jurisdictions restricting the rights of women to to obtain a safe termination of pregnancy, a quote is only notable if it is made by a politician who is usually a man who knows little about what pregnancy is, but not by a woman who has demonstrated through her writing that she knows much more about the topic, but no one on ENWP has shown any interest in creating a page for her, yet? (and btw where are all the women enwq-editors participating in this discussion?)
I can go on and on, but in my opinion removing quotes provided by hard-working, good-faith, dedicated volunteers serves only to deter others from participating on this wiki. In this particular case I am referring to the creator of this page who has done a lot of very beneficial work but has not been around since the new "cleanup" war has been waged on ENWQ. We need more not less volunteers to tackle the backlogs here IMIO. I am out of here before I get blocked for expressing my views! Ottawahitech (talk) 21:42, 17 February 2024 (UTC)[reply]
Wikiquote policy describes its content: quotable, notable quotes. Nobody has ever threatened to block you for your repeated laments that instead Wikiquote should serve as free hosting for whatever content anyone wants to put here. This is a wiki, anybody can edit it. The first version of this article, created by @CensoredScribe: consisted of fine quotable quotes with an image, all of which still remain in the article. I doubt that the absence of CS since January 18, 2024 was caused by my edits today, and I sincerely hope he'll return. HouseOfChange (talk) 02:50, 18 February 2024 (UTC)[reply]
  • @Ottawahitech A person is notable when reliable, independent sources can be found on the given person. These sources doesn't neen to be in english but need to be reliable and independent. Here in WQ we seem to consider Wikipedia a reliable source but it shouldn't be a factor for a Wikiquote article to exist since they are separated projects. Robin Loup (talk) 10:30, 18 February 2024 (UTC)[reply]

This article is a mess[edit]

Instead of being a collection of quotable quotes from notable people, it is a collection of medical advice assembled from random sources by random people, with a heavy emphasis on promoting sex and orgasm during pregnancy. I have nothing against sex and orgasm, but WQ is not designed to offer medical advice. This is another example of the "fake-Wikipedia" problem pushed onto us by aggressive editors, whose goal is to lard us with "quotes" pushing some particular point of view without having to go through the Wikipedia constraints of fact-checking and NPOV.

So that others can weigh in on the state of this article, I am removing non-notable, non-quotable items including medical advice about preganancy (unless it happened to be expressed as a quotable remark by a notable person) to this page where others can weigh in on whether or not they belong in a Wikiquote article. Ali Wong is not the only notable person to have had the experience of being pregnant and SAID quotable things about it; this article should have more like that. HouseOfChange (talk) 19:25, 17 February 2024 (UTC)[reply]

Our findings from the US were consistent with previous research that has found a decline in sexual activity during pregnancy in other countries. ~ Jami S. Leichliter, and Sevgi O. Aral
In ancient times, at the earliest stage of pregnancy a temple physician would refer to astrological data and determine what mineral and vegetable influences would be necessary... this made childbirth much easier. Nowadays, instead of applying wise measures beforehand, people rely on crude narcotics, for they are unwilling to understand that the bond between mother and child has yet to be severed. At times the heart of the mother is very stressed, and any narcotic also affects the milk. Nature is in need of natural reactions. ~ Morya
Generally, researchers want to keep as many variables as they can the same, to get a clearer picture of what effect a drug is having. Fluctuating hormone levels can affect how drugs are absorbed by the liver, said Tannenbaum, so it was simpler to just test on men, who didn’t have this issue. ~ Leslie Young
Couples can continue to have intercourse throughout the ninth month, right up to the beginning of labor. Some couples use sexual intercourse to initiate labor because prostaglandins contained in the seminal fluid soften the cervix and are said to gently start contractions. Sheila Kitzinger (1983) describes a natural way of starting labor through lovemaking. She suggests that the pregnant woman lies on her back—her head and shoulders well supported by many pillows—while her partner kneels in front of her and between her legs. Kitzinger writes, “Lift one leg so that your foot is over his shoulder, then the other…. [This] allows the deepest penetration so that the tip of the penis can touch the cervix…. [W]hen he has ejaculated he should stay inside you for 5 minutes or so and you should stay in the same position, with legs raised, for 10 to 15 minutes, so that the cervix is bathed in semen” (Kitzinger, 1983, p. 207). This can be followed by manual or oral stimulation of the nipples to encourage contraction of the uterus. Kitzinger reports, “About 20 minutes of nipple caressing, interspersed with other kinds of loving touch, seems right for most women” (Kitzinger, 1983, p. 209).
Studies done in the past 10 years have shown that hormone levels associated with relaxation and stress are significantly altered when massage therapy is introduced to women’s prenatal care. This leads to mood regulation and improved cardiovascular health. ~ American Pregnancy Association
Smoking during pregnancy can cause low-birth weight, preterm delivery, and infant death. Smoking during pregnancy is estimated to account for 20 to 30 percent of low-birth-weight babies, up to 14 percent of preterm deliveries, and about 10 percent of all infant deaths according to the American Lung Association. ~ American Pregnancy Association
Teenage pregnancy rates have fallen substantially since 1990, generally mirroring the declines in the teenage birth rates. ~ CDC
The outcomes found in the present study show that dyadic sexual desire decreases in men as pregnancy advances. This may be due to the fact that some may see their partner as less attractive due to the changes that occur in women’s bodies, such as the increase in the size of the abdomen, the fact that the genitals swell at the end of pregnancy, the vagina turns a bluish color due to hyperemia, the breast’s areolas turn dark, a black line appears going from the navel to the pubis, etc.. Men can also see the fetus as an intruder in the relationship or as a third person, making them feel uncomfortable regarding sexual encounters. In addition, due to the changing roles in the couple, the woman may be regarded as a mother instead as the object of sexual desire she was before. Of course, men may also fear of harming the fetus as a result of sexual encounter. ~ Francisco Javier Fernández-Carrasco, Luciano Rodríguez-Díaz, Urbano González-Mey, Juana María Vázquez-Lara, Juan Gómez-Salgado, and Tesifón Parrón-Carreño
Because pregnancy has many similarities with transplantation, we hypothesize that induction of allogeneic tolerance to the paternal HLA molecules of the fetus may be crucial. ~ C A Koelman, A B Coumans, H W Nijman, I I Doxiadis, G A Dekker, F H Claas
Intercourse during late pregnancy was associated with a reduced risk of preterm delivery. The conditional odds ratio (OR) was 0.34 and 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.23, 0.51 for preterm delivery within 2 weeks after intercourse. Similar decreased risk for preterm delivery was found with recent female orgasm. Adjusting for race, age, education, and living with a partner had little effect on results. Cases were more likely than controls to report poorer health, medical reasons for reducing sexual activity, less interest in sex, and receipt of advice to restrict sexual activity during pregnancy. ~ A E Sayle, D A Savitz, J M Thorp Jr, I Hertz-Picciotto, A J Wilcox
  • Studies done in the past 10 years have shown that hormone levels associated with relaxation and stress are significantly altered when massage therapy is introduced to women’s prenatal care. This leads to mood regulation and improved cardiovascular health.
    In women who received bi-weekly massages for only five weeks, hormones such as norepinephrine and cortisol (hormones associated with stress) were reduced, and dopamine and serotonin levels were increased (low levels of these hormones are associated with depression).
  • Pregnancy is a great time for you to quit smoking. You will feel better and have more energy to go through your pregnancy. You will also reduce your risks of future health problems such as heart disease, cancer, and other lung problems. Studies show that 12-20 percent of pregnant women smoke, putting themselves and their babies at risk. And over 1,000 babies in the U.S. die each year because their mothers smoked while pregnant.
  • Smoking during pregnancy can cause low-birth weight, preterm delivery, and infant death. Smoking during pregnancy is estimated to account for 20 to 30 percent of low-birth-weight babies, up to 14 percent of preterm deliveries, and about 10 percent of all infant deaths according to the American Lung Association.
  • Even though the planning status of a pregnancy does not tell us the full reason why women choose abortion, understanding the prevalence of unplanned pregnancy and its proximate cause—nonuse of contraceptives or contraceptive failure—is essential for understanding the context within which women seek abortion.
    Evidence abounds that a high proportion of women become pregnant unintentionally, in both developed and developing countries. In the United States and in some Eastern European countries for which data are available, about one-half to three-fifths of all pregnancies are unintended, and a large proportion of these are resolved through abortion.2 And in many developing countries, the proportion of recent births that are unintended exceeds 40%; even in regions where most couples still want large families, 10-20% of births are unplanned.
    • Bankole; et al. (1998). "Reasons Why Women Have Induced Abortions: Evidence from 27 Countries". International Family Planning Perspectives. 24 (3): 117–27, 152. doi:10.2307/3038208. JSTOR 3038208. Archived from the original on 17 January 2006.


  • Several recent studies claimed that sexual desire in women decreases in the first trimester of pregnancy, remains the same in the second, and further decreases in the third. These results are attributed to the fact that most studies obtained their data at an isolated stage, i.e., they surveyed a population of pregnant women at just a specific moment of the process, thus obtaining data on women’s sexual desire regarding only one trimester. In this study, the same sample was assessed at four different periods, corresponding to the start of pregnancy and each of the trimesters. This way, it was possible to identify a clear evolution throughout pregnancy.
  • The outcomes found in the present study show that dyadic sexual desire decreases in men as pregnancy advances. This may be due to the fact that some may see their partner as less attractive due to the changes that occur in women’s bodies, such as the increase in the size of the abdomen, the fact that the genitals swell at the end of pregnancy, the vagina turns a bluish color due to hyperemia, the breast’s areolas turn dark, a black line appears going from the navel to the pubis, etc.. Men can also see the fetus as an intruder in the relationship or as a third person, making them feel uncomfortable regarding sexual encounters. In addition, due to the changing roles in the couple, the woman may be regarded as a mother instead as the object of sexual desire she was before. Of course, men may also fear of harming the fetus as a result of sexual encounter.
  • Techniques that entail the dissociation of husband and wife, by the intrusion of a person other than the couple (donation of sperm or ovum, surrogate uterus), are gravely immoral. These techniques (heterologous artificial insemination and fertilization) infringe the child's right to be born of a father and mother known to him and bound to each other by marriage. They betray the spouses' "right to become a father and a mother only through each other."
  • Techniques involving only the married couple (homologous artificial insemination and fertilization) are perhaps less reprehensible, yet remain morally unacceptable. They dissociate the sexual act from the procreative act. The act which brings the child into existence is no longer an act by which two persons give themselves to one another, but one that "entrusts the life and identity of the embryo into the power of doctors and biologists and establishes the domination of technology over the origin and destiny of the human person. Such a relationship of domination is in itself contrary to the dignity and equality that must be common to parents and children."167 "Under the moral aspect procreation is deprived of its proper perfection when it is not willed as the fruit of the conjugal act, that is to say, of the specific act of the spouses' union . . . . Only respect for the link between the meanings of the conjugal act and respect for the unity of the human being make possible procreation in conformity with the dignity of the person."168
  • Birth rates for teenagers differ sharply among race and Hispanic ethnicity population subgroups. In 2003 the overall rate was highest for Mexican teeangers, 93.2 per 1,000 aged 15-19 years, and lowest for API teenagers, 17.4. In-between were 64.7 for non-Hispanic black teenagers, 60.8 for Puerto Ricans, 53.1 for American Indians, and 27.4 for non-Hispanic white teenagers.
    Whereas rates have fallen for adolescents in all groups over the 1991-2003 period, the most striking declines are for non-Hispanic black teenagers. Overall, their rate fell 45 percent during this period, but the rate for non-Hispanic black teenagers aged 15-17 years has fallen more than one-half, from 86.1 per 1,000 in 1991 to 38.7 in 2003 (figure 3, table A)State-specific teenage birth rates are discussed later in this report.
    ‘’’Teenage pregnancy rates have fallen substantially since 1990’’’, generally mirroring the declines in the teenage birth rates. Pregnancy rates are computed from the sums of live births, induced abortions, and fetal losses. Currently, teenage ‘’pregnancy’’ rates are available through 2000, the most recent year for which detailed national abortion estimates are available. The teenage pregnancy rate in 2000 was 84.5 per 1,000 females aged 15-19 years, the lowest rate reported since 1976, when the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, NCHS series of national estimates first became available (19,20). The rate has dropped 27 percent since its 1990 peak (116.3). The decline in the pregnancy rate during 1990-2000 is reflected in declines in live births and induced abortions, with larger declines reported for abortions.


  • Rachel Neal is a fellow with Physicians for Reproductive Health and an OB-GYN in Georgia, where abortion is outlawed after cardiac activity is detected, around six weeks. While the state provides an exception in cases in which the “physician determines, in reasonable medical judgment, that the pregnancy is medically futile,” she said water breaking in the late second trimester would typically not be covered.
    That means women who previously had the choice to end their pregnancies early now either have to leave the state or wait to deliver a baby that will likely die immediately or shortly after birth, while putting themselves at high risk of infection that could impact their ability to get pregnant again.
    “It’s completely uncharted territory,” Neal said. “Before all of this, almost nobody chose this. ... It was very uncommon that someone would choose to wait ... because realistically any outcome that would result in a live birth is so slim.”
  • Because of the Christian presumption to preserve and protect life, this church, in most circumstances, encourages women with unintended pregnancies to continue the pregnancy. Faith and trust in God’s promises has the power to sustain people in the face of seemingly insurmountable obstacles. In each set of circumstances, there must also be a realistic assessment of what will be necessary to bear, nurture, and provide for children over the long-term, and what resources are available or need to be provided for this purpose. The needs of children are a constant. The parenting arrangements through which these needs are met may vary. If it is not possible for both parents to raise the child, this might be done by one parent, by the extended family, or by foster or adoptive parents.
    This church encourages and seeks to support adoption as a positive option to abortion. Because adoption is an increasingly more open process today, it generally is easier for birth parents to have a role in selecting the adoptive parents and in maintaining some contact with the child. These possibilities can be helpful in the grieving process that is likely to occur when birth parent(s) choose to place the child for adoption after having bonded with the child during pregnancy. Care needs to be taken in selecting adoption processes that do not exploit but safeguard the welfare of all parties involved. At the same time, we recognize that there are unintended pregnancies for which adoption is not an acceptable option.
  • If companies “treat their nonpregnant employees terribly, they have every right to treat their pregnant employees terribly as well,” said Representative Jerrold Nadler, Democrat of New York, who has pushed for stronger federal protections for expecting mothers.
    In every congressional session since 2012, a group of lawmakers has introduced a bill that would do for pregnant women what the Americans With Disabilities Act does for disabled people: require employers to accommodate those whose health depends on it. The legislation has never had a hearing.
  • The involvement of immune mechanisms in the aetiology of preeclampsia is often suggested. Normal pregnancy is thought to be associated with a state of tolerance to the foreign antigens of the fetus, whereas in preeclamptic women this immunological tolerance might be hampered. The present study shows that oral sex and swallowing sperm is correlated with a diminished occurrence of preeclampsia which fits in the existing idea that a paternal factor is involved in the occurrence of preeclampsia. Because pregnancy has many similarities with transplantation, we hypothesize that induction of allogeneic tolerance to the paternal HLA molecules of the fetus may be crucial. Recent data suggest that exposure, and especially oral exposure to soluble HLA (sHLA) or HLA derived peptides can lead to transplantation tolerance. Similarly, sHLA antigens, that are present in the seminal plasma, might cause tolerance in the mother to paternal antigens. In order to test whether this indeed may be the case, we investigated whether sHLA antigens are present in seminal plasma. Using a specific ELISA we detected sHLA class I molecules in seminal plasma. The level varied between individuals and was related to the level in plasma. Further studies showed that these sHLA class I molecules included classical HLA class I alleles, such as sHLA-A2, -B7, -B51, -B35 and sHLA-A9. Preliminary data show lower levels of sHLA in seminal plasma in the preeclampsia group, although not significantly different from the control group. An extension of the present study is necessary to verify this hypothesis.
  • A Padmini procreates once in four years, Chitarini once in three, Hastini once in two and Sankhini every year.
    • Labdhodaya in his Padmini Charitra Choupai. quoted from B.K. Karkra, Rani Padmini, The Heroine of Chittor. (2009) Rupa.


  • Our findings from the US were consistent with previous research that has found a decline in sexual activity during pregnancy in other countries. Specifically, we found that women who were in late pregnancy (second or third trimester) had lower reports of sexual activity including having multiple vaginal or oral sex partners in the past 12 months. Additionally, we found that pregnant women had lower reports of condom use at least vaginal sex which was consistent with a study in Kenya that found low levels of condom use among pregnant women. Finally, we did not find any difference in reports of having a sex partner who is at STI/HIV risk among pregnant, postpartum and other women. A previous study in Uganda that interviewed sexually active women and their spouses found no difference in spouses reporting a non-marital partner for pregnant, lactating or other women. We also found no difference in reported penile-anal sex or condom use at last penile-anal sex among pregnant, postpartum and other women. It is worth noting that reports of penile-anal sex may occur less frequently in the general population (the current study) than in high risk populations. Finally, differences in behavior for pregnant and non-pregnant women were most commonly identified for non-Hispanic white women and women 25–44 years old.
  • Seven studies including 7125 pregnant women were included in this systematic review. Overall, the incidence of preeclampsia was similar in women with a higher overall sperm exposure compared to controls, 774/5512 (14 %) vs 220/1619 (13.6 %); OR 1.04, 95 % CI 0.88–1.22, respectively. The incidence of preeclampsia was significantly reduced in women with a higher overall sperm exposure when including only nulliparous women, 643/3946 (16.1 %) vs 170/725 (23.4 %); OR 0.63, 95 % CI 0.52 to 0.76. Significant lower rate of preeclampsia was also found for ≥12-month sexual cohabitation, 494/3627 (13.6 %) vs 123/691 (17.8 %); OR 0.73, 95 % CI 0.59−0.90. Significantly higher rate of preeclampsia was reported in women not using barrier methods, 315/1904 (16.5 %) vs 103/962 (10.7 %); OR 1.65, 95 % CI 1.30–2.10.
  • Malignant disease requiring radiation therapy during pregnancy presents an enormous challenge for the clinician. The optimal radiotherapeutic management of the patient and the optimal management of the pregnancy involve directly opposing demands. Ionizing radiation should be avoided during pregnancy whenever possible. Doses in excess of 0.1 Gy (10 rad) delivered during gestation have been associated with various detrimental effects, and therapeutic abortion has been recommended. If radiation is unavoidable, such as in the treatment of some gynecologic tumors, lymphomatous diseases, or other advanced solid tumors, it must be performed with extreme caution and maximal effort to reduce the dose to the fetus by special shielding techniques. Decisions regarding the use of radiation therapy during pregnancy, the delay of therapy, or pregnancy termination should be made by a multidisciplinary team and be guided by the prognosis of the disease, the stage of gestation, the risk to the fetus from the expected fetal radiation dose, and the patient's ethical and religious beliefs.
  • Over many generations, a refined understanding of the needs of the body protected humanity. One might recall, for example, the solicitude with which the Egyptians treated the condition of pregnancy. It is rare nowadays for anyone to pay attention to the tastes or strange predilections of pregnant women. But in ancient times, at the earliest stage of pregnancy a temple physician would refer to astrological data and determine what mineral and vegetable influences would be necessary; and this made childbirth much easier. Nowadays, instead of applying wise measures beforehand, people rely on crude narcotics, for they are unwilling to understand that the bond between mother and child has yet to be severed. At times the heart of the mother is very stressed, and any narcotic also affects the milk. Nature is in need of natural reactions.
  • Approximately half of all pregnancies are unplanned, and more than 40 percent of these three million unplanned pregnancies are aborted. This accounts for the vast majority of America’s abortions every year. Any serious attempt to reduce the number of abortions must therefore come to terms with unplanned pregnancy, the pandemic of extramarital sex and the complex issues surrounding contraception and other family planning methods. Where couples are not willing to accept the responsibilities of parenting, they should educate themselves about ethical methods of family planning. The Church is understandably reluctant to recommend contraception for unmarried sexual partners, given that it cannot condone extramarital sex. However, it is even more tragic when unmarried individuals compound one sin by conceiving and then destroying the precious gift of life. Witness the far-reaching consequences to King David’s sins of adultery and murder.
  • By the 1940s scientists had figured out the importance of hormones in the female reproductive cycle. They established that once a woman becomes pregnant, her fertility is suspended. A woman cannot conceive again while pregnant, because her ovaries secrete the hormones estrogen and progesterone. The secretion of estrogen tells the pituitary gland to withhold the hormones necessary for ovulation. The secretion of progesterone also helps to inhibit ovulation by suppressing the lutenizing hormone known as LH.
  • The process of fertilization, also known as conception, occurs within 24 hours of ovulation at the distal end of the fallopian tube. The newly created zygote travels down the fallopian tube until it reaches the uterine cavity 3.5 days after conception. It forms the blastocyst stage at this point by 4.5 days and implants in the endometrium at 7–9 days after conception. There is no test at this time that can determine that fertilization has taken place or that a conceptus is present until ∼12 days after conception, by a serum quantitative β-hCG level. In order for successful implantation to occur, the endometrium has to evolve from the prereceptive phase to the receptive phase. According to Johnson
    “the uterus can be thought of as a primarily hostile environment able to carefully control a potentially dangerous invasive trophoblastic tissue. Clearly, for the conceptus to survive, its early development and transport must be coordinated precisely with the changing receptivity of the uterus. This coordination is achieved by the mediation of the steroid hormones. Progestagenic domination is required if the uterus and implanting blastocyst are to engage effectively. (Johnson 2007, 198)
    There are still many details of that nine-day period leading up to implantation that are not known, but from the research done so far, it is extremely complex and the proper levels of progesterone at critical times are necessary for it to be successful.
    In assessing whether a drug has had a purely contraceptive effect, the only parameter that can ether sperm have made their way up to the fallopian tube or have fertilized the ovum at the end of the tube be observed is to determine whether ovulation has occurred by ultrasound. There is no way to determine whether sperm accurately assess when ovulation occurs normally in a particular woman’s cycle and whether the drug interferes with ovulation in a subsequent cycle are the most reliable determinants of a contraceptive effect. Studies that accurately assess when ovulation occurs normally in a particular woman's cycle and whether the drug interferes with ovulation in a subsequent cycle are the most reliable determinants of a contraceptive effect. Likewise, those investigators who claim there is no effect of LNG-EC on post-fertilization events, but fail to study the hormonal milieu throughout the luteal phase cannot make that claim accurately. In addition, the process that allows successful implantation of the human blastocyst is quite complex and is not entirely understood at the present time.
  • Female skeletons have three features that may indicate the number of full-term pregnancies: (1) dorsal pitting of the public plate, (2) scarring of the preauricular groove, and (3) scarring of the groove for the interosseous ligament. When parturition occurs, one or more of these features are produced. Hypothetically, one can study the dorsal pits on a female pubis and dertermine the number of births she had.
  • As women know all too well, there can be many reasons for a delayed or irregular menstruation, a condition called amenorrhea. Among them are febrile and chronic diseases, malnutrition, overwork, stress, mental depression, and, all too important, mistaken perceptions and memory. Of course, another possible reason for the delay is pregnancy. There is no reliable way for a woman who missed a normal onset by a few days or so to know what the cause may have been. If she takes a drug to stimulate menstruation, she could not possibly know whether she had assisted a natural process of terminated a very early pregnancy. “Early pregnancy” here is defined by modern conventions, by which pregnancy begins at conception or implantation.
    Indeed, during the Middle Ages, a woman would not have stated the situation as I just have. As we shall see in the next chapter, pregnancy was not thought to have occurred until the woman so declared it or her pregnancy was so visibly evident that it could not be denied.
  • Noonan, Himes, and Feen cite the numerous instances in Hebrew, Greek, and Latin sources in which the subjects of abortion and contraception are encountered, and they see no consensus in antiquity about when it was morally wrong to contracept potentially fertile intercourse or to abort once fertilization had occurred. The Stoics had a notion of potentiality at conception but believed that the soul was not present until birth. Aristotle’s position was more definite, but still it was not definitive. Marie-Therese Forntanille believes that the time interval that at least some of the ancient saw between conception and “animation” (“quickening,” it will be called later) was a zone for action without incurring moral or legal wrong.. There was an imprecise difference between when the fetus was formed according to Aristotle and when quickening occurred, but the difference was too subjective for precise legal or theological distinctions. Between conception and animation was a window for action by the female. For this reason contraception and early abortions were acceptable. Hebrew religious law allowed for a period of up to thirty days before a fetus was potentially viable. A woman was not to be regarded as pregnant until forty days after conception.
  • Intercourse during late pregnancy was associated with a reduced risk of preterm delivery. The conditional odds ratio (OR) was 0.34 and 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.23, 0.51 for preterm delivery within 2 weeks after intercourse. Similar decreased risk for preterm delivery was found with recent female orgasm. Adjusting for race, age, education, and living with a partner had little effect on results. Cases were more likely than controls to report poorer health, medical reasons for reducing sexual activity, less interest in sex, and receipt of advice to restrict sexual activity during pregnancy. Results did not differ substantially according to presence or absence of bacterial vaginosis at 28 weeks.
  • Standing in the Hebrew-Christian tradition, we affirm God as the Source of life-our life, all life, life to the full. He has called us to share the work of creation with him giving us the privileges and responsibilities of fellowship in the family and in the wider units of society. Thus we affirm the freedom with which God endowed men and women, but we affirm and receive this as freedom bound to responsibility. At its best our Western legal tradition, too, has served the dual purpose of protecting human freedom and helping human beings to discharge their responsibilities to one another.
    Our religious heritage has also stressed reverence for human life. Accordingly, the enhancement of human life and the protection of the rights of persons, particularly the weak and defenseless, has become an important element in our legal system. It has found expression in laws intended to protect those who cannot protect themselves, such as children, including the unborn. It is neither likely nor desirable that organized society would disavow its responsibility in this regard.
    Inevitably, therefore, a judgment will be made or assumed as to when personal human life begins and at what point society has an interest in it and affirms an obligation toward it. Although a form of life exist in the sperm and the unfertilized ovum, new kind of life emerges at the moment of their union. Many regard conception (up to 72 hours after coitus), others implantation (7 days), as the beginning of an inviolable life. But while such life is human in origin and potentially human in character, the integration of bodily functions and the possibility of social interaction do not appear until later. Alternative candidates for the beginning of significantly human life are the final fixing of the genetic code (3 weeks), the first central nervous system activity (8 weeks), brain development and cardiac activity (12 weeks). Some time after the twelfth week “quickening” occurs; that is, the mother can feel the arm and leg movements of the fetus. “Viability” in the present stage of technology begins between the 20th and 28th weeks, and the fetus has a chance for survival outside the womb. At some point in the process from conception to birth there comes “a period when a life contains that which is essentially valued as significantly human and should be vested with a sanctity uncompromisable to the interest of lesser claims”
  • To conclude, chemotherapy administered during the first trimester is associated with significant teratogenic effects. The risks of birth defects when cytotoxic drugs are administered during second and third trimesters are similar to those of the general population. As for exposure to X-radiation, the accepted dose limits of radiation are about 5 cGy, and most radiographic imaging techniques employs doses well below these safe limits. Therapeutic radiation, which involves exposure to much higher doses, is only considered acceptable (when fetal well-being is to be preserved) for the treatment of areas at a correct distance from the fetus, and after consultation with an experienced radiation oncologist.

“Sex and Pregnancy: A Perinatal Educator's Guide” (Fall 2000)[edit]

Viola Polomeno, “Sex and Pregnancy: A Perinatal Educator's Guide”, J Perinat Educ. 2000 Fall; 9(4): 15–27.

  • The first phase (from conception to 12 weeks).
    In the first phase, Ganem (1992) reported a 20% decrease in sexual intercourse due to a decrease in sexual desire on the part of the pregnant woman, who may be experiencing nausea, vomiting, fatigue, and sensitive breasts. She is described as now putting energy into her evolving role of mother. Though she experiences many emotional changes, she needs to know that she is still loved by her partner and by other family members. Some women may discover that their sexual desire improves at this time, especially if it was absent or at a lower level before the pregnancy. Some couples fear that sexual intercourse at this time could cause miscarriages. However, a couple could be told to abstain from sexual intercourse during the first three months, only if she has had complications with previous pregnancies or is experiencing cramping or bleeding.
  • The second phase (12 to 32 weeks).
    The second phase can be a special time for the couple as they refocus on themselves. Typically, the woman is adjusting to the physical and psychological changes of pregnancy, while the man is starting to deal with impending fatherhood. The pregnancy may enhance the couple's feeling of being a team. Their sexual love is often rekindled as the woman accepts her pregnant body and, thus, can feel sexual and have sexual desire. The baby's movements and making his/her presence felt might herald moments of shared joy and happiness. Ganem (1992) reported that couples felt a sense of security and intimacy in their love, with many of them wanting to isolate themselves at this time in order to concentrate on themselves. However, Ganem also reported that one-third of couples will experience the fifth-month crisis (Ganem, 1992): The woman may turn inward and her partner may feel that he is no longer important. At this time, some men react by seeking another woman and initiating an extramarital affair. On the other hand, since the pregnant woman's libido is often greatly increased and if her partner does not respond, she may be the one who seeks company elsewhere.
    According to Ganem (1992), one-fifth of women will discover orgasm for the first time during their pregnancies. Many couples use the woman's heightened libido to experiment and expand their sexual repertoire: for example, they may change their positions for sexual intercourse (Wilkerson & Shrock, 2000), try different caresses, sexual games, and fantasies, and offer mutual pleasuring in the form of mutual masturbation. In Ganem's study, couples reported that the timing of lovemaking changed: Women appeared to desire their partner between 10:00 and 11:00 a.m. and between 4:00 and 6:00 p.m.. Dr. Ganem proposed that a connection exists between these two periods and the timing of potential hypoglycemia during the day for some pregnant women. The only sexual technique that has been questioned during a healthy pregnancy is the man blowing into the woman's vagina during cunnilingus. Some propose that this technique can cause an air embolism (Alteneder & Hartzell, 1997). Ganem reported that 40% of French pregnant women in his practice expressed a desire for anal intercourse.
  • The third phase (32 to 36 weeks).
    In the third phase, women may experience increased doubts and uncertainties, which can impact a woman's sexuality to the point that all sexual activity stops. She may have fears that her baby may be malformed or abnormal, or that she could deliver prematurely. If these fears are strong, gaining reassurance from prenatal care visits and knowing about the fetal heartbeat, the adequate size of the pelvis, and the baby's correct position may not be enough. Simultaneously, many changes are occurring in the pelvis: The baby is exerting more pressure, which may result in pinching sensations in different parts of the pelvis, pain deep in the vagina, or discomfort and pain from sciatica and the separation of the pubic symphysis. Pelvic pressure increases if the pregnant woman is carrying several fetuses. Any of these problems may decrease the frequency of intercourse.
  • The fourth phase (36+ weeks).
    In the last and fourth phase involving the ninth month of pregnancy, couples wonder when the birth will occur. According to Ganem (1992), this phase is also a sensitive time in the couple's relationship because a potential risk for separation exists, even for the most functional of couples and for those who deeply love each other. How the couple deals with this sensitive period will have an impact for labor and birth (Polomeno, 1998a, 1998b) and may set the pattern for postpartum adjustment and future pregnancies (Polomeno, 1999b).
    During the time, the woman's sexual and erotic capacity still exists. However, the baby is heavy and pressing down on different parts of her pelvis, and the mother may feel tired or afraid of the impending birth. Pelvic congestion follows orgasm and its absorption is even slower than before (between 48 and 72 hours). It is important that couples know about this physical fact because a delay of 48 to 72 hours may be needed for repeated sexual intercourse. It is important to respect this delay, at least for vaginal orgasm. Clitoral orgasm can be substituted, but some women complain of pain radiating to the outer labia. A compress of lukewarm or cold water applied to the perineum may alleviate this pain. Some women may experience temporary abdominal discomfort, but this does not harm the baby—a fact about which women need to be reassured. Women who enjoy stimulation from the G-Spot may experience congestion without ejaculation or only partial ejaculation.
  • Couples can continue to have intercourse throughout the ninth month, right up to the beginning of labor. Some couples use sexual intercourse to initiate labor because prostaglandins contained in the seminal fluid soften the cervix and are said to gently start contractions. Sheila Kitzinger (1983) describes a natural way of starting labor through lovemaking. She suggests that the pregnant woman lies on her back—her head and shoulders well supported by many pillows—while her partner kneels in front of her and between her legs. Kitzinger writes, “Lift one leg so that your foot is over his shoulder, then the other…. [This] allows the deepest penetration so that the tip of the penis can touch the cervix…. [W]hen he has ejaculated he should stay inside you for 5 minutes or so and you should stay in the same position, with legs raised, for 10 to 15 minutes, so that the cervix is bathed in semen” (Kitzinger, 1983, p. 207). This can be followed by manual or oral stimulation of the nipples to encourage contraction of the uterus. Kitzinger reports, “About 20 minutes of nipple caressing, interspersed with other kinds of loving touch, seems right for most women” (Kitzinger, 1983, p. 209).
  • All sexual practices are possible, provided that the pregnancy is normal and the partners feel comfortable with them. A pregnant woman can masturbate just as her partner can, or they can engage in mutual masturbation (also called mutual pleasuring). Anal intercourse is controversial—but if the couple is used to it, gentleness and the use of a water-based, sterile lubricating gel are suggested. However, if the woman has hemorrhoids, the couple should abstain from anal intercourse. Fellatio and cunnilingus can continue; however, the man may find that the vaginal secretions have a different taste—being more metallic or salty. This taste usually disappears once the woman has an orgasm (Ganem, 1992). The pregnant woman can be more susceptible to infections; thus, some accessories that couples use for sexual play may not be appropriate during pregnancy because the items can cause pain or infections. If sexual accessories are used, couples need to be more careful and, through reasonable judgment, determine if or how they want to continue to use them. Examples of such accessories include vibrators and edible products used with oral sex. Use of these items inside the vagina may increase the risk of infection. Body paints may cause skin sensitivity during pregnancy. If a couple feels unsure about sexual accessories and their use, they could be encouraged to consult with a sexual therapist who specializes in sexual practices during pregnancy and to inquire about the safety of these items.
  • Sex is normal and healthy during pregnancy (Sprecher & McKinney, 1993), and sexuality is unique to each couple (Polomeno, 2000b). Some couples and perinatal health care professionals hold a traditional viewpoint regarding sex and pregnancy, while others believe that pregnancy is the ideal time to be creative, imaginative, innovative, and adventuresome. Perinatal educators can help couples as they explore their sexuality during pregnancy (Polomeno, 2000a). Some believe that the intimacy dimension of the couple's relationship is the most affected dimension in the transition to parenthood (Polomeno, 1997; Selder, 1989). Thus, information that helps couples use mutual pleasuring to cement the passion in their relationship during the changes of pregnancy may make pregnancy an exciting time, rather than one of discord.
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